Imagine a world reshaped by words—where slogans, songs, and speeches ripple through everyday life, fueling passion, fear, and sweeping social change. This was the reality in China during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), when rhetoric became a powerful tool for both unity and upheaval. Why does the language from this era still echo in Chinese culture today? In this article, we’ll explore the origins, meaning, and powerful imagery of the Cultural Revolution’s rhetoric.
Join us to uncover how words shaped a generation—and continue to influence modern China.
The Rhetoric of the Chinese Cultural Revolution: Unpacking Words and Power
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The Chinese Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) stands as one of the most turbulent chapters in modern Chinese history—an era marked not only by social upheaval but by a unique, powerful use of language and symbolism. The “rhetoric” of this movement went well beyond posters and slogans; it reshaped relationships, daily behaviour, and even the thoughts of millions.
To grasp the true impact and legacy of the Cultural Revolution, it’s essential to understand how language, symbols, and public discourse were mobilized. This article explores the origin, features, and ongoing influence of the rhetoric that defined this extraordinary time.
Origins and Historical Context
Setting the Stage: China in the 1960s
In the mid-1960s, China was still a young communist nation, rebuilding after decades of war and striving to establish a new, classless order under Chairman Mao Zedong. Amid growing concerns about inequality, bureaucracy, and “capitalist tendencies” creeping into society, Mao launched the Cultural Revolution with the declared aim of purging old ideas and revitalizing revolutionary spirit.
Why Rhetoric Became a Central Tool
Mao and top party leaders recognized that control over language and public expression meant control over society’s beliefs, loyalties, and fears. Mobilizing the masses required more than edicts—it required hearts and minds, won through emotionally charged slogans, repeated catchphrases, and carefully orchestrated rituals. The Cultural Revolution thus used rhetoric not just as persuasion, but as a transformative force.
Key Features of Cultural Revolution Rhetoric
Polarization: Us vs. Them
One of the hallmarks was its sharply divisive style. The language of the Cultural Revolution constantly separated people into “reds” (revolutionary, loyal followers) and “blacks” or “class enemies” (reactionaries, intellectuals, former landowners, or anyone perceived as opposing Mao). This binary logic left little room for ambiguity or nuance. Even personal relationships became defined by political categories.
Examples of polarizing terms:
– “Running dog of imperialism”
– “Counterrevolutionary”
– “Loyal subject of Chairman Mao”
Dehumanization and Demonization
Political enemies were not simply criticized—they were dehumanized using labels, metaphors, and public shaming rituals. Labels like “ox demons and snake spirits” turned supposed class enemies into objects of mockery and hate, making it easier to justify violence or exclusion against them.
Posters, newspapers, and “big character posters” (dazibao) were festooned with caricatures and exaggerated imagery, making abstract enemies seem ever-present and menacing.
Moral Absolutism
Rhetorical choices during the Cultural Revolution were profoundly moralistic. There was only right or wrong, pure or impure, loyal or traitorous, with no shades of gray. This moral framing infused even the most mundane aspects of life. Wearing the wrong clothes, speaking with a certain accent, or keeping traditional items at home could be labeled immoral, counterrevolutionary acts.
Ritualized Symbolism
Symbolism was everywhere: the color red (revolutionary), the image of Mao, the ubiquitous “Little Red Book” of Chairman Mao’s quotations. These symbols were imbued with emotional and almost sacred weight, reinforcing loyalty and signaling group membership. Public rituals—chanting slogans, singing revolutionary songs, parading with red armbands—became daily expressions of allegiance.
The Power of Slogans
Short, rhythmic, and highly repetitive slogans became the lifeblood of daily discourse:
– “Long Live Chairman Mao!”
– “Smash the Four Olds!”
– “Revolution is not a dinner party!”
These slogans were chanted at rallies, painted on walls, broadcast over loudspeakers, and included in school lessons. Their sheer repetition buried deeper thought and encouraged conformity.
Cultural Meaning and Symbolism
Words as Weapons
The Cultural Revolution rhetoric was deliberately combative. Language became a weapon, used to mobilize, accuse, and defend. Through language, ordinary people were empowered to denounce teachers, neighbors, and even family members. The act of writing a dazibao—an oversized poster displaying political critiques—became both a right and a duty.
Group Rituals and Identity
Public rituals, like “struggle sessions” to criticize suspected enemies, relied on ritualized rhetoric. These events often included forced confessions, collective chanting, and theatrical gestures of loyalty, all fueled by polarizing language.
The Sacredness of Mao’s Words
Mao’s sayings were treated with reverence, almost like scripture. People memorized and chanted his quotations; schools and workplaces held sessions to “study Mao’s thought.” His words were believed to have the power to solve problems and purify the soul.
Significance in Daily Life and Traditions
Everyday Communication
The lines between public and private speech blurred. Family dinner conversations, letters, diary entries—even casual remarks—were filled with revolutionary terminology. People anxiously monitored each other for signs of “incorrect” rhetoric, as a careless word could lead to accusation or worse.
Holidays and Festivals
While traditional celebrations were officially discouraged (as parts of the “Four Olds” to be destroyed: old customs, habits, culture, and thinking), new revolutionary holidays and anniversaries were promoted. These events were marked by mass rallies and performative displays of revolutionary rhetoric, featuring readings from Mao’s works and group singing of revolutionary anthems.
Variations and Related Concepts
“Dazibao” (Big Character Posters)
These handwritten posters—often angry and accusatory—became a defining feature of public life. Anyone could write one, and thousands would be displayed in schools, workplaces, and city squares. This democratized the power to denounce and helped spread official rhetoric at the grassroots level.
Revolutionary Songs and Performances
Music, dance, and opera were all retooled to serve revolutionary ideals. Lyrics brimmed with slogans and praised Mao, the Communist Party, or revolutionary heroes. The famous “model operas” (yangbanxi) featured stories of class struggle, performed in a new, highly stylized artistic language.
Language Policing
Speech was closely monitored and controlled. Certain words, idioms, and phrases tied to pre-revolutionary culture were banned, while new ones flourished. This led to a kind of “newspeak,” with ever-shifting, politically acceptable vocabulary.
How Rhetoric Was Practiced and Celebrated
Public Meetings and Self-Confessions
Mass meetings, sometimes involving hundreds or thousands, were everyday occurrences. Individuals were pressured—or compelled—to publicly critique others and themselves, confessing their ideological errors using prescribed rhetoric. These acts reaffirmed the power of revolutionary language and demonstrated loyalty.
Education and Indoctrination
From elementary school onwards, children memorized Mao’s quotations and revolutionary poems. Textbooks, art, and even math problems were rewritten in revolutionary language. Students were encouraged to denounce teachers who were deemed insufficiently radical.
Visual Propaganda
Bright red banners, posters, cartoons, and billboards covered nearly every public space. The bold visual style reinforced the verbal message, creating a sense of constant mobilization.
Interesting Facts and Myths
- The use of red ink for writing slogans wasn’t just aesthetic—red was considered auspicious and counterrevolutionary messages in red were an unthinkable contradiction.
- Some “big character posters” became so influential that they led to national policy changes.
- Rumors and invented stories, spread via posters and word of mouth, often took on a life of their own, blurring the line between fact and fiction.
- Once the movement ended, many terms and expressions fell rapidly out of use, but some survived as political slang or reminders.
Impact and Modern Relevance
Lingering Effects on Chinese Communication
Even decades later, traces of Cultural Revolution rhetoric linger in the Chinese language. Some phrases survive as historical reminders; others have been re-appropriated in satire or criticism. Many people who lived through the era recall the pressure to conform and the costs of even accidental deviation from approved speech.
Shaping Political Discourse
The era’s legacy can be seen in how public discourse remains carefully policed in some contexts. Current campaigns or leaders still borrow from the revolutionary playbook—using sharp slogans, ritualized displays, and emotionally charged language—though not with the same fervor or extremism.
Cultural Memory
For younger generations, the rhetoric of the Cultural Revolution is both a warning and a subject of curiosity. Artists, filmmakers, and writers have revisited its language and imagery to explore questions of identity, trauma, and history.
Conclusion
The rhetoric of the Chinese Cultural Revolution was more than a way of speaking—it was a carefully constructed system of persuasion and control, shaping the very fabric of daily life. Through slogans, symbols, and rituals, language acted as both glue and weapon, fostering unity and division in equal measure.
While the most extreme forms of this rhetoric have faded, its lessons remain relevant. Understanding this chapter illuminates not only a tumultuous historical moment, but the enduring power of words in shaping societies, for better or worse.
FAQ
What does “rhetoric of the Chinese Cultural Revolution” mean?
It refers to the specific language, slogans, symbols, and persuasive techniques used during the Cultural Revolution to mobilize people, enforce ideological purity, and target real or imagined enemies. This rhetoric shaped how people thought, spoke, and behaved in daily life.
Why was language so important during the Cultural Revolution?
Language was seen as a powerful tool for social control and transformation. By shaping public discourse, authorities could shape beliefs and actions, building support for political campaigns and suppressing dissent.
What are some examples of Cultural Revolution slogans?
Famous slogans include “Long Live Chairman Mao!”, “Smash the Four Olds!”, and “Rebellion is justified!” These were repeated in public spaces, schools, workplaces, and rallies.
What were “big character posters” (dazibao) used for?
Dazibao were large, handwritten posters used to criticize, denounce, or expose people and policies. They allowed individuals to participate in public discourse, often stirring debate or fear.
How did the rhetoric of the Cultural Revolution affect daily life?
Daily life was saturated with revolutionary language. Conversations, education, media, and rituals all used approved expressions. People monitored their own and others’ speech to avoid suspicion or accusations.
How did symbolism work during the Cultural Revolution?
Colors (especially red), images of Mao, the “Little Red Book”, and other symbols were used to visually reinforce revolutionary ideals and signal loyalty.
What was the role of Mao Zedong’s quotations in this rhetoric?
Mao’s sayings were treated as ultimate truths, memorized, quoted, and used as a basis for debates or decisions. They dominated education, public speaking, and even arts.
Did the rhetoric promote violence?
Yes, the polarizing and dehumanizing language helped justify exclusion, persecution, and sometimes violence against those labelled as “enemies” of the revolution.
Does this rhetoric still influence China today?
While the intense language of the Cultural Revolution has faded, some phrases and strategies survive in political communication. It also remains a subject in art, memory, and critical discussion.
How do people view this era now in China?
Views vary widely. Many remember the time as chaotic and traumatic, while others see aspects as formative or cautionary. Official assessments now generally recognize the excesses and harm caused by the period’s rhetoric and campaigns.
